sustainability in african architecture

Sustainability has become a buzz word in the architecture world. Having designs classified as LEED, Energy Star, Zero Energy Building, Living Building Challenge, etc. has become a badge of honor for many architects. The sustainable designs of European, American and Asian architects are frequently used as case studies and accredited for some of the most state of the art designs. However, African architects have been creating sustainable designs for thousands of years. To ignorant eyes, traditional African architecture is primitive. Those who understand it, they can see traditional African architecture was way ahead of its time and still is. It is carbonless, materials are locally sourced, cooling, and ventilation systems are efficient. Natural light is optimized, and there are usually systems for water collection and use. Instead of looking to other countries as sources of inspiration, African architects should reach into the past and learn from the genius of our ancestors because they genuinely designed for their people, their culture, and their environment.

The Definition of a Green Building

Although green and sustainable buildings have existed since the first human habitat was constructed in Africa, the definition of "green building" most widely used is based on the Western guidelines.

"Green building is the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation and deconstruction. This practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort. Green building is also known as a sustainable or high performance building." [9.]

While this definition is quite general, it often becomes much more convoluted as well as political when it comes to certifying a green building.

            It should be noted, there are no independent green rating systems that specifically take into account the unique needs of individual African countries or the African continent as a whole. Therefore, the definition of a "green building" and the standards associated with certifying green buildings are derived from Western systems and, more recently, sometimes those of Singapore and China.

In 1990, the first green rating system in the world was established. The Building Research Establishment's Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) takes 10 critical factors into consideration: management, health and well-being, energy, transport, water, materials, pollution, and innovation. [7.]

While BREEAM is comprehensive, it is not without its faults and it has been revised several times. “BREEAM can give far too much credit given to peripheral or even useless environmental aspects of building design. In the past these have included such as the addition of bike racks and recycling systems, diverting focus from more important elements such as lighting, building controls and water consumption.” [19.] Other certification or ratings systems have attempted to fill the gaps of BREEAM, however there is still no perfect one-size-fits-all approach to defining and quantifying all green buildings.

Perhaps the most globally inclusive organization is the World Green Building Council. Although it was founded in the United States in 1993, it has now grown to include more than 70 countries including 9 countries in Africa. Each member is at a different stage in their green building journey and several factors including culture and climate are taken into consideration.

“Green Building Councils are independent, non-profit organisations made up of businesses and organisations working in the building and construction industry. As members of WorldGBC, they work to advance green building in their own countries, as well as uniting with other Green Building Councils to achieve environmental, economic and social goals on a larger, global scale.” [6.]

The key flaw in the Green Building Councils is that although they allow for each country to create their own criteria for their green building rating tool and require the implementation and operation of the tool, “WorldGBC would encourage all rating tools upon establishment to consider certifying their certification process under a relevant international third party quality assurance assessment.” [8.] In other words, while the Green Building Councils in developing countries may have good intentions, they are at the mercy of third parties from developed nations when determining if their green rating system will be accredited. Unless local governments stand up for their own standards and change policies to ensure local standards are recognized, they will continue to lack independence and be at the mercy of external influences.

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design or LEED Certification is perhaps the most easily recognizable and widely publicized green building standard. It was the result of a partnership between the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) and the United States Green Building Council (USGBC) in 1998. The launch was facilitated by the Federal Energy Management Program. Over the years, the program has evolved. However, it still assesses building design and construction in terms of energy efficiency, water usage, air quality, materials, and other factors, including access to public transportation and land use. [22.] There are 4 different levels of certification:

• LEED Certified buildings earn 40–49 points

• LEED Silver buildings earn 50–59 points

• LEED Gold buildings earn 60–79 points

• LEED Platinum buildings earn 80 or more points [10.]

LEED certification has become more of a PR stunt than a necessity. Owners, contractors, and designers of LEED-certified buildings receive recognition for the accomplishment. The property values are usually higher, and they sell faster than those that have not be LEED certified. [16.] However, because LEED assessment is only done during the construction phase and can be done when the building is only at 60% completion [10.], the actual effectiveness once in operation is never tested. This means a LEED-certified building could actually use more resources, and the occupants are more wasteful than a non-certified building.

From the above examples, one can see by conducting an analysis of each green or sustainable ranking/certification mechanism that there are flaws. While the intention is good, most are symbolic. If one takes a step back and focuses on the materials and techniques rather than the smoke and mirrors a certification may provide, traditional African architecture without any certifications is obviously some of the most sustainable in the world.

Green Materials

Materials used in traditional African architecture are generally locally sourced and readily available in sufficient quantities. Climate differences and varying degrees of availability meant that traditional African architecture was heavily influenced by the availability of materials from region to region. The use of materials was also influenced by the architecture observed in nature, such as beaver dams and bee hives.

"African people look inward and discovered those materials which were used in building construction, and they are: laterite, sandcrete, stabilized earth, burnt clay, clay brick, bamboo, raffia palm, leaves, timber, palm-kernel shell, crash coconut shell, animal waste, dung and others." [24.]

Thatch

Thatch is a material commonly used for the roofs in traditional African architecture. It is estimated that thatch has been used for roofing for over 10,000 years. It is still considered one of the most eco-friendly roofing materials available. If made well, a thatch roof can last 30-50 years, however some have been recorded to have lasted much longer. The thatch uses materials such as palm branches, straw, water reed, or other dried vegetation that can be layered to form the roof. While the type of building under the thatch roofs may vary, the concept is essentially the same.

Timber framing is used for the roof. Because the thatch is added on top of the frame, it allows for the utilization of roof space that would ordinarily be wasted if other materials were used. The type of wood used in the frame is generally what is locally available and is not the same across Africa. Roof designs can also vary. Because of the pliability of thatch, it can be crafted into a variety of shapes that would be nearly impossible with the use of other materials. Because of the thickness of thatch roofs, they serve as excellent insulation and help maintain a comfortable internal temperature.

As a result of attempts to "Westernize," many African countries have tried to eliminate thatch roofs. The ignorant Westerners once claimed thatch roofs were "primitive." Later it was believed they were a greater fire hazard than other roofing material, which led to the steep decline in its use. Countries like Rwanda even outlawed the use of thatch roofs in 2011. [4.] Ironically, in several European countries today, thatch roofs are making a comeback as they are considered to be trendy and environmentally friendly. [23.]

The round house or rondavel is found across Africa. It is a round or oval-shaped construction typically made from locally sourced materials in their raw form, including stones, sand, and soil mixed with cow dung. It is believed to have evolved from the West African domed hut nearly 3,000 years ago. [23.] The thatch roof is sewn to poles to hold it together. The floor is made of a dung mixture that is compressed to make it hard and smooth. They are also cool when it is hot and warm when it is cold. [21.]

 Mud

Mud bricks are still one of the most popular building materials in Africa. The clay used is locally sourced and uses a traditional sun drying process. The three-phase brick making process takes several days. A mixture is created using water and soil or clay. It is poured into wooden molds that are lined with sand. The molds are hit on the ground to remove any trapped air to prevent cracking and bubbles. Once this step has been completed, they are put in a shady area or in a place where they can be covered for several days to slowly dry. [18.]

Once the bricks have been cured, they can be fastened together using mortar made from the same mixture used to create the bricks. In some cultures, mud will also be placed over the entire external surface; however, in others, the mud bricks are exposed.

Mud constructions vary by region across Africa. For example, in Northern Cameroon, mud huts are seen as impermanent structures that have a life cycle much like a human. Due to the rainy season that lasts 3-4 months a year, they rebuild mud huts every 1-2 years or when a family member dies. After the rainy season, occupants may spend an entire season repairing and rebuilding their homes. [18.] These homes can be erected quickly and essentially melt back into the earth from which they came with minimal impact to the environment.

Mali has some of the most advanced mud-brick structures globally and is also home to the world's largest mud structure, the Great Mosque of Djenné. The unique architectural style of Djenné is believed to have developed in the Sahel and Sudanian grassland of West Africa. [20.]

"The mosques are built using mud bricks and reinforced with large wooden logs that stick out of the building's facade. These extrusions are called 'toron' and serve as both decoration and as a type of scaffolding for workers who are tasked with re-surfacing the mosque each year." [20.] “The mosques are built using mud bricks and reinforced with large wooden logs that stick out of the building's facade. These extrusions are called 'toron' and serve as both decoration and as a type of scaffolding for workers who are tasked with re-surfacing the mosque each year.” [20.]

In 1988, UNESCO declared Djenné, Mali, a World Heritage site. Although the original structure was believed to have been built during the 13th century, the current mosque was built approximately one hundred years ago. The mosque is built on a mud platform that elevates it three meters off of the ground.

Stone

Stone constructions can be far more complex than those constructed of brick, wood, or mud if tools are required to cut the stones into specific shapes. While some constructions used stones piled on top of each other and were solidified by using mortar or the sheer weight of the stones. What is often overlooked is that Africa is also home to some of the most sophisticated ancient stone structures in the world.

Most people are familiar with the stone construction used in Egypt's Giza pyramids; however, the Nubian Meroë pyramids are lesser-known. "Nubia's pyramids double those in Egypt and were erected for kings and queens over a period of nearly 700 years." [14.] There are around 200 pyramids in total, and the oldest dates back more than 4,500 years.

Although among the largest stone constructions, pyramids are far from the only use of stone in traditional African architecture. Stone structures found in southern Africa are believed to date back 75,000 years which would make them the earliest human-made buildings on the planet. Dating back to 2500 BCE, Soninke people of pre-historic Ghana carved stone masonry settlements and worked with copper. [14.]

Mauritania is an example of where stones were used to construct an entire city that was built between the 12th and 16th centuries, but remains standing today. The desert climate of Mauritania made the use of other building materials a challenge. With its harsh climate, the people found the best solution available at the time was to use stones that fit tightly together and required little mortar. Some homes were plastered with clay to fill gaps, but not all. “The streets are narrow with houses closely packed together, and in this way houses protect each other from the sun, wind and dust of the Sahara.” [13.]

The stone walls surrounding homes were not only used as protection and to ensure privacy, but they also provided insulation that kept indoor temperatures stable during the hot days and cool nights experienced in Mauritania. The houses would open towards courtyards rather than the street to prevent excess dust from entering. [13.]

The Function of Materials and Design in Traditional African Architecture

Although the words “sustainable” or “green” did not exist thousands of years ago, Africans built their homes according to the green and sustainable principles used today. Unfortunately, as a result of the after effects of brainwashing by Ignorant Westerners, most Africans have been convinced that traditional=poor or that traditional=inferior. They fail to realize that the traditional designs that stood the test of time are the result of thousands of years of trial and error. Every aspect of the designs serves a specific purpose.

Natural materials used in construction had the ability to regulate building temperatures. Thatching works as a natural insulator that keeps out heat during the day and warmth in at night. Tin roofs, although considered more "modern" simply turn homes into ovens during the day that absorb the sun's heat.  The materials absorbed moisture when it was humid and allowed it to evaporate when it was hot, which provided a cooling effect. The texture and color of buildings helped them blend into their surroundings in many cases, which helped protect the locals from attacks.

Besides traditional thatch some people, like the Eswatini’s from southern Africa, used tightly woven coverings that were placed over the top of domed frames that were made of pliable saplings. These roofs worked much like the typical thatch roofs only they were thinner. They were able to insulate from the heat and protect against rain.  [15.]

As in many other places, the Drogon's of Mali use stone, earth, and thatch in the traditional construction of their villages, however, the functionality of the designs sets them apart. Buildings are arranged in tight clusters that form family compounds. Each individual compound is surrounded by stone walls. These walls do not use any mortar, which allows for a free flow of air that lets all of the structures breathe. 

The tallest structures in the compounds are the granaries where they are designed to keep the grain dry.  “The walls and roofs of the granaries are shaped by hand with a very thin layer of earth that allows the structure to breath. The roofs are then covered with straw in order to protect the granary from rain.] The granaries are also elevated, which allows for air to flow under them and keep them from getting too hot and also helps prevent insects from entering. [2.]

Modern Interpretations of Traditional, Sustainable Designs

Case Study: Makoko Floating School Prototype

Sustainable designs solve problems so when it came to the Makoko school, Nigerian architect Kunlé Adeyemi of NLÉ took on an enormous task. Makoko is a waterfront slum in Lagos, Nigeria. The children had inadequate access to educational facilities. Due to threats of flooding and rising water levels as a result of global warming, there were limited land resources in the immediate area. Adeyemi proposed creating a floating school that was a modern, sustainable upgrade of traditional water villages that use stilts as a means of keeping dry. [12.]

After obtaining funding from NGOs to complete the project, construction began in 2012 and was complete by 2013. The materials used in construction were a combination of recycled materials, including 256 barrels, as well as locally sourced materials such as bamboo and timber. It was reflective of the spirit of community and culture seen in traditional African constructions.

The general design resembled a triangle. All the classrooms were located above the first floor and were partially enclosed with the help of louvered slats. An open-air classroom was located at the very top. On the lower floor there was a public green space that could be used as a playground. This design allowed for the school to be naturally aerated and ventilated as well. Hence there was no need for other forms of cooling, creating a conformable atmosphere for children to study. To further improve its sustainability features PV cells were added to the roof as well as a rain water collection system making it one of the most sustainable structure in the world. [12.]

Although the original prototype collapsed in 2016, it was not in use at the time and no injuries were reported. As a result of this innovative, sustainable design, a Makoko Floating School II, and Makoko Floating School III have been constructed in Italy and Belgium respectively. While some may call this project a failure, the fact that it has changed the way people think about construction on the water as well as sustainable schools means that it was enormously successful. The design was further enhanced with the intention of perfecting it so that it can be replicated and ensure it has a much longer lifespan. [12.]

Case Study: An Innovative Home Combining Traditional and Modern-Accra, Ghana

When architect Joe Osae-Addo returned to Accra, Ghana with the love of his life, he wanted to design a home that was not only a love letter to her, but also to their Ghanaian heritage. He knew that the cement bricks found in most new constructions did not have the sustainable qualities of more traditional materials so he decided to build his home from timber and adobe mud bricks. [3.]

He also decided he wanted to use natural cooling methods and avoid installing air conditioning. To do this he first designed the home so that it would be 1 meter off the ground. Like in the granaries of the Dogon cliff village, this would allow air to flow under the home and naturally cool the entire house. With sliding slatted-wood screens and floor to ceiling jalousie windows for cross ventilation, the temperature is kept comfortable.

“Interstitial spaces and landscape are what defines tropical architecture. It is not about edifice but rather harnessing the elements—trees, wind, sun, and water—to create harmony, not the perfection that modernism craves so much.” [3.]

Even though the house is connected to the national grid for electricity, solar panels have also been installed for backup and for heating water. When it was built in 2004 construction of the entire house cost only $50,000.

Conclusion

Traditional African architecture is often overlooked by modern architects. While some of the structures may seem primitive to the ignorant eye, traditional architecture was built with purpose from sustainable materials that made sense for the climate and culture. In modern times many people choose superficial cosmetics over function. In Africa, many governments and property developers choose Western certifications over time honored design and construction methods that make sense in Africa. By going back to ancient civilizations as well as constructions that have stood the test of time, architects designing for Africa have much to learn. We should be humbled by our ancestor’s innovation and find pride in their advanced thinking instead of rushing to assimilate to materials and designs that were never meant for Africa.

Works Cited

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r8RKb2w1yd8

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https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/africahaveyoursay/2011/05/should-modernisation-be-forced.shtml

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